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Gyromagnetism.

Gyromagnetism
For gyromagnetic media (see Faraday rotation)
the magnetic permeability response to an
alternating electromagnetic field in the
microwave frequency domain is treated as a
non-diagonal tensor expressed by: [5]
Values for some common
materials
The following table should be used with caution
as the permeability of ferromagnetic materials
varies greatly with field strength. For example
4% Si steel has an initial relative permeability
(at or near 0T) of 2,000 and a maximum of
35,000 [6] and, indeed, the relative permeability
of any material at a sufficiently high field
strength trends toward 1.
Magnetic susceptibility and permeability data for
selected materials

permegnets.

Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism which
occurs only in the presence of an externally
applied magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials
are attracted to magnetic fields, hence have a
relative magnetic permeability greater than one
(or, equivalently, a positive magnetic
susceptibility). The magnetic moment induced
by the applied field is linear in the field strength
and rather weak . It typically requires a sensitive
analytical balance to detect the effect. Unlike
ferromagnets, paramagnets do not retain any
magnetization in the absence of an externally
applied magnetic field, because thermal motion
causes the spins to become randomly oriented
without it. Thus the total magnetization will drop
to zero when the applied field is removed. Even
in the presence of the field there is only a small
induced magnetization because only a small
fraction of the spins will be oriented by the
field. This fraction is proportional to the field
strength and this explains the linear
dependency. The attraction experienced by
ferromagnets is non-linear and much stronger,
so that it is easily observed, for instance, in
magnets on one's refrigerator.

Diamegnetism.

Diamagnetism is the property of an object
which causes it to create a magnetic field in
opposition of an externally applied magnetic
field, thus causing a repulsive effect.
Specifically, an external magnetic field alters the
orbital velocity of electrons around their nuclei,
thus changing the magnetic dipole moment in
the direction opposing the external field.
Diamagnets are materials with a magnetic
permeability less than μ0 (a relative
permeability less than 1).
Consequently, diamagnetism is a form of
magnetism that a substance exhibits only in the
presence of an externally applied magnetic field.
It is generally a quite weak effect in most
materials, although superconductors exhibit a
strong effect.

Relative permeability.

Relative permeability, sometimes denoted by the
symbol μr , is the ratio of the permeability of a
specific medium to the permeability of free
space, μ0:
where μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 N A −2. In terms of
relative permeability, the magnetic susceptibility
is
χm , a dimensionless quantity, is sometimes
called volumetric or bulk susceptibility, to
distinguish it from χp ( magnetic mass or
specific susceptibility) and χM (molar or molar
mass susceptibility).

Explanation of permeability.

In electromagnetism, the auxiliary magnetic field
H represents how a magnetic field B influences
the organization of magnetic dipoles in a given
medium, including dipole migration and
magnetic dipole reorientation. Its relation to
permeability is
where the permeability, μ, is a scalar if the
medium is isotropic or a second rank tensor for
an anisotropic medium.
In general, permeability is not a constant, as it
can vary with the position in the medium, the
frequency of the field applied, humidity ,
temperature, and other parameters. In a
nonlinear medium , the permeability can depend
on the strength of the magnetic field.
Permeability as a function of frequency can take
on real or complex values. In ferromagnetic
materials, the relationship between B and H
exhibits both non-linearity and hysteresis : B is
not a single-valued function of H , [2] but
depends also on the history of the material. For
these materials it is sometimes useful to
consider the incremental permeability defined as
This definition is useful in local linearizations of
non-linear material behavior, for example in a
Newton–Raphson iterative solution scheme that
computes the changing saturation of a magnetic
circuit.

Explanation of permeability.

In electromagnetism, the auxiliary magnetic field
H represents how a magnetic field B influences
the organization of magnetic dipoles in a given
medium, including dipole migration and
magnetic dipole reorientation. Its relation to
permeability is
where the permeability, μ, is a scalar if the
medium is isotropic or a second rank tensor for
an anisotropic medium.
In general, permeability is not a constant, as it
can vary with the position in the medium, the
frequency of the field applied, humidity ,
temperature, and other parameters. In a
nonlinear medium , the permeability can depend
on the strength of the magnetic field.
Permeability as a function of frequency can take
on real or complex values. In ferromagnetic
materials, the relationship between B and H
exhibits both non-linearity and hysteresis : B is
not a single-valued function of H , [2] but
depends also on the history of the material. For
these materials it is sometimes useful to
consider the incremental permeability defined as
This definition is useful in local linearizations of
non-linear material behavior, for example in a
Newton–Raphson iterative solution scheme that
computes the changing saturation of a magnetic
circuit.

Crystal field theory.

In the ionic CFT, it is assumed that the
ions are simple point charges . When
applied to alkali metal ions containing a
symmetric sphere of charge, calculations
of bond energies are generally quite
successful. The approach taken uses
classical potential energy equations that
take into account the attractive and
repulsive interactions between charged
particles (that is, Coulomb's Law
interactions).
The bond energy between the charges is
proportional to q1 * q2 /r
where q1 and q2 are the charges of the
interacting ions and r is the distance
separating them. This leads to the correct
prediction that large cations of low
charge, such as K + and Na + , should form
few coordination compounds.
For transition metal cations that contain
varying numbers of d electrons in orbitals
that are NOT spherically symmetric,
however, the situation is quite different.
The shape and occupation of these d-
orbitals then becomes important in an
accurate description of the bond energy
and properties of the transition metal
compound.

B-H Curve.

When tested experimentally, a ferromagnetic (i.e.
strongly magnetic) material such as iron will
produce a curve similar to that shown above.
Firstly, notice that here is an upper/lower limit to
the magnetic flux density which may be achieved,
which occurs at positive or negative saturation ,
respectively. This is related to the crystalline
structure of the iron, where each crystal has its
own – initially random – magnetic orientation.
Increasing the magnetic field strength in either
direction causes more and more magnetic
'domains' to align with the external magnetic field,
but once almost all of the domains have aligned
themselves, then little further increase in magnetic
flux density is possible. The ferromagnetic material
is said to be saturated.
A second key observation is that the curve
demonstrates magnetic hysteresis or 'lag' as the
sample is alternatively magnetised in the positive
and negative directions. When initially magnetised,
the curve follows points a – b on the graph, but on
reducing H to zero, some residual magnetism
remains (point c - also known as the remanent
flux density ). In order to fully demagnetise the
specimen, it is necessary to apply a negative
magnetic field strength (point d - called the
coercive force). Making H increasingly negative
leads to negative saturation (point e ). If H is
reduced back to zero, point f is reached (negative
residual magnetism). As H becomes positive, the
flux density reduces to zero (point g) and then
becomes positive, finally returning back to point b
(positive saturation), after which the cycle b– g
repeats.

Linear polarization.

For a pure substance in solution, if the color
and path length are fixed and the specific
rotation is known, the observed rotation can be
used to calculate the concentration. This usage
makes a polarimeter a tool of great importance
to those trading in or using sugar syrups in
bulk.
In the presence of an applied magnetic field, it
is possible for samples of all compounds to
exhibit optical activity. A magnetic field aligned
in the direction of light propagating through a
material will cause the rotation of the plane of
linear polarization. This Faraday effect is one of
the first discoveries of the relationship between
light and electromagnetic effects.
Optical activity or rotation should not be
confused with circularly polarized light.
Circularly polarized light is often presented as a
linear polarization rotating as the light
propagates. However, in this picture, the
polarization completely rotates in a length equal
to the wavelength (roughly one micrometer for
visible light), and it can happen in vacuum. In
contrast, optical activity occurs only in a
material, and a complete rotation occurs in a
length of millimeters to meters, depending on
the material.

Optical ratation.

The rotation of the orientation of linearly
polarized light was first observed in 1811 in
quartz by French physicist François Jean
Dominique Arago. In 1822, the English
astronomer Sir John F.W. Herschel discovered
that different individual quartz crystals, whose
crystalline structures are mirror images of each
other (see illustration), rotate linear polarization
by equal amounts but in opposite directions.
Jean Baptiste Biot also observed the rotation of
the axis of polarization in certain liquids and
gases[ citation needed ] of organic substances
such as turpentine. Simple polarimeters have
been used since this time to measure the
concentrations of simple sugars, such as
glucose , in solution. In fact one name for D-
glucose (the biological isomer), is dextrose ,
referring to the fact that it causes linearly
polarized light to rotate to the right or dexter
side. In a similar manner, levulose, more
commonly known as fructose, causes the plane
of polarization to rotate to the left. Fructose is
even more strongly levorotatory than glucose is
dextrorotatory. Invert sugar syrup , commercially
formed by the hydrolysis of sucrose syrup to a
mixture of the component simple sugars,
fructose, and glucose, gets its name from the
fact that the conversion causes the direction of
rotation to "invert" from right to left.
In 1849, Louis Pasteur resolved a problem
concerning the nature of tartaric acid . A
solution of this compound derived from living
things (to be specific, wine lees) rotates the
plane of polarization of light passing through it,
but tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis
has no such effect, even though its reactions
are identical and its elemental composition is
the same. Pasteur noticed that the crystals
come in two asymmetric forms that are mirror
images of one another. Sorting the crystals by
hand gave two forms of the compound:
Solutions of one form rotate polarized light
clockwise, while the other form rotate light
counterclockwise. An equal mix of the two has
no polarizing effect on light. Pasteur deduced
that the molecule in question is asymmetric and
could exist in two different forms that resemble
one another as would left- and right-hand
gloves, and that the organic form of the
compound consists of purely the one type.

Electromagnetism

In electromagnetism, permeability is the
measure of the ability of a material to support
the formation of a magnetic field within itself.
Hence, it is the degree of magnetization that a
material obtains in response to an applied
magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is
typically represented by the Greek letter μ. The
term was coined in September 1885 by Oliver
Heaviside . The reciprocal of magnetic
permeability is magnetic reluctivity .
In SI units, permeability is measured in henries
per meter (H·m −1), or newtons per ampere
squared (N·A −2). The permeability constant
(μ 0), also known as the magnetic constant or
the permeability of free space, is a measure of
the amount of resistance encountered when
forming a magnetic field in a classical vacuum .
The magnetic constant has the exact (defined)
[1] value µ 0 = 4π×10 −7 H·m −1≈
1.2566370614…×10 −6 H·m −1 or N·A −2 ).
A closely related property of materials is
magnetic susceptibility, which is a measure of
the magnetization of a material in addition to
the magnetization of the space occupied by the
material.
Explanation
In electromagnetism, the auxiliary magnetic field
H represents how a magnetic field B influences
the organization of magnetic dipoles in a given
medium, including dipole migration and
magnetic dipole reorientation. Its relation.